Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
This part of the study shall be covering the literature and
studies associated with the subject of the paper. The chapter shall discuss
topics relating to the teaching and learning of ESL as connected to psychology
and other teaching methods.
Teaching and Methods of Discipline
For this study, the
researcher has decided to utilize Dreikurs’ Model of discipline. (Dreikurs,
1968) Among the contributions of the said author to discipline is the
relationship between the student's sense of belonging and classroom behavior.
Dreikurs also described the importance of a democratic classroom and teaching
style as well as the genuine goal of belonging or social interest. He also
stated four mistaken goals of attention, power, revenge, or displaying
inadequacy. Moreover, he urged encouragement and logical consequences instead
of punishment in correcting behavior.
Dreikurs (1968) also
posited that there are a couple of ways in attaining discipline, the
undesirable way, and the desirable way. The former is characterized with
aversive control and punishment imposed on students. It is usually displayed by
autocratic teachers. In contrast, lack of control where students are
irresponsibly allowed to do as they please. The latter is described as having
self-discipline in which students regulate their own behavior. This is most
often accomplished by democratic teachers. He purports that students acquire a
sense of belonging through democratic teaching and confronting mistaken goals.
Deikurs (1968) defined
democratic Teaching as an environment where friendly teachers establish order
necessary for learning, invite students to cooperate, provide stimulation,
encourage sharing of ideas, provide direction and guidance, share
responsibility, acknowledge students and their work, and involve students in
making decisions that affect the class. On the other hand, autocratic teaching
is also defined where teachers lay down the law in the classroom, allow little
student input, boss students around, exert pressure, demand cooperation, make
all the rules and consequences unilaterally, find fault, criticize, and
dominate.
He also added the concept
of permissive teaching. (Dreikurs, 1968) In this framework, teachers put few
limits on students, allow students to do as much as they wish, accept whatever
students do, and fail to help students understand that freedom must be linked
to responsible behavior. Furthermore, he also assumes that students want to
feel they belong, to the group, the class, the school; do not want to feel
isolated, left out, unnoticed, not a part of things. Likewise, he also
suggested the concept of mistaken goals. Students seek these behaviors when
unable to obtain a sense of belonging.
The framework provided by
Dreikurs (1968) also suggest that when students misbehaves, they are punished
undesirably through punishment, humiliation, or isolation. Otherwise, they
could be punished desirably through logical consequences, encouragement, and
confronting mistaken goals.
Moreover, the theory of
Dreikurs is largely influenced by Adler’s principles. Adler's psychology is
summarized in six central principles. First is the unity of the Individual. The
theory presupposes that the individual is not internally divided or a
battleground of conflicting forces. Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
consistent with the person's style of life. Second is goal orientation. The
study assumes that a central personality dynamic originates from the growth and
forward movement of life itself. It is a future-oriented striving toward a goal
of significance, superiority, or success, which is frequently out of a person's
awareness. In mental health, it is a goal of superiority over general
difficulties; in mental disorder, it is one of superiority over others. The early
childhood feelings of inferiority, for which an individual aims to compensate,
lead to the creation of a fictional goal. The depth of inferiority feeling
determines the height of the goal, which then becomes the "final
cause" for the person's behavior.
The third is the concept
of self-determination and uniqueness. The study believes that the goal may be
influenced by hereditary and cultural factors, but it ultimately springs from
the creative power and opinion of the individual. The fourth concept is social
context. As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also part of
larger wholes or systems -- family, community, culture, nation, humanity, the
planet, the cosmos. In these contexts, we meet the three important tasks of
life: community, work, and love. All are social problems. The way that
individuals respond to the first social system, the family, may become the
prototype of their worldview. The fifth is the concept of feeling of community.
The theory assumes that each human being has the capacity for developing the
feeling of interconnectedness with other living beings and learning to live in
harmony with society. The personal feeling of security is rooted in a sense of
belonging and embeddedness in the stream of social evolution. The last concept
is the principle of mental health. It is supposed that social usefulness and
contribution are the criteria of mental health. Maladjustment is characterized
by an underdeveloped feeling of community, a deeply felt inferiority feeling,
and an exaggerated, uncooperative goal of personal superiority. The goal of
therapy is to increase the feeling of community, promote a feeling of equality,
and replace egocentric self-protection, self-enhancement, and self-indulgence
with self-transcending, courageous, social contribution.
The English Language
English is used in these and other countries as a first
language -- or a speaker's native and most often used tongue. There are also
people worldwide who use English in addition to a native language or as a second
language, as in
etc. A third group of people might study English as a foreign language and use
it only for special purposes. English has more non-native speakers than any
other language (Pyles, 1993, p233).
In a study made by Krapp (1925) regarding the English
language, he provided an The author
provides an overview on how the American language has evolve from way back
three hundred years reflecting new and complicated developments in social and
economic conditions, that the language has undergone some of its most
interesting changes. In these changes, the author emphasized that the English
language in
has shared to as great an extent as the American people have shared in the
development of the civilization of the modern world. This study of American
English made a reflection for the most part an impressionistic or polemic
interest in the speech of the day, and though often animated and amusing, and
sometimes the vehicles for a certain amount of valuable information, they have
offered very little in the way of systematic elucidation of the English
language in
The author paid attention most attention has been paid in these treatises, both
by Britons and by Americans, to the ever-burning question whether American
English is as good as British English.
Another study on the English language was conducted by
Schlauch (1965). In her work, the author suggests revisions not yet undertaken, for reasons of time and
technique. For instance, the author noted B. Trnka, "A Phonemic Aspect of
the Great Vowel Shift", in Mélanges
de linguistique et de philologie F. Mossé in memoriam, proposes a neat
correlation of quantity and tenseness of vowels which should be carefully
considered in any treatment of the subject. Similarly, the chapter on American
dialects by R. I. McDavid, Jr., in W. N. Francis, The Structure of American English, should be read as supplement to
his brief discussion. The whole question of Middle English dialects is now
being subjected to rigorous scrutiny by Angus McIntosh (
basic revision of the pioneer work by
(1935), upon which the researcher have chiefly relied. Current work on Modern
English dialects will also, in due course, render obsolete to this discussion
of that subject, based on materials and analyses of the never-to-be-forgotten
Joseph Wright.
Teaching English as Second
Language
The acquisition and learning of language has been
has been primarily attributed to the aid of ESL courses. Primarily to promote
integration among immigrants, courses for language learning has been
predominantly sought after. In this light, this portion of the chapter shall be
summarizing several studies pertaining to the instruction of ESL.
In a study
of Do-Seon (1997), he proposes a psychoanalytic approach to teaching the
language. He focused on the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) system
emphasizing the personal, interactive, functional and social aspects of
language use in real situations and real time. The researcher stated the
factors that are involved in developing English communication competencies
particularly in
This document cited the problems that are encountered in learning the English
Language and from teaching strategies itself. Moreover, this paper proposed the
advantages of humanistic approach of ER as a new and effective paradigm.
Another is a compilation edited by Gass and
Schachter (1996), which tackle the issues and opportunities of ESL. The
distributors cited the practical details of doing classroom-based research in
second language issues and opportunities. The article confers in neither the
generation of research questions nor the setting up of research projects, for
they had had much experience in that area. Rather, they made an honest
behind-the-scenes look at what happens from the beginning to the end of a
research project within a classroom context. In other words, they did not
include about the result the part that appears on the printed pages of
journals.
The work of Fleishman (1998) on the other hand
looked at the current condition of the English Language and how it has been
affecting us globally specifically into comprehension of each country’s
culture. On this discussion, it included
the cruel fact all can agree: in the mid- 1990s the Modern Language Association
was reporting that fewer than half the new Ph.D.s in English and other
literatures were finding tenure-track positions in association with teaching
English as a second language. Moreover, another work of Braine (1999) talked
about the 1995 Teachers of English to Speakers of Other language (TESOL)
Convention held in Long Beach, a stimulating colloquium titled "Research
Writing, Genre, and Socialization" which examined the role of socialization
in non-native speakers' (NNSs) understanding and use of various writing genres.
The author emphasized the most encouraging enthusiasm of the NNSs in the
audience; some claimed that they finally had a voice. The origin of this book
can be traced to the interest generated in NNS issues at the
has since spawned five other colloquia at subsequent TESOL conventions and
inspired the formation of a TESOL Caucus for non-native educators.
In addition, the study of Forbis (1995) assessed
the Asian accent in the western setting in particular focus on
document made a statistical analysis on the comprehension and skills of Asian
immigrants, and students in learning the English language. The researcher
gathered the data from a theater school program in
western setting.
Another study is done by Celce-Murcia (2002). This
methodology resource gave both experienced and prospective ESL/EFL teachers the
theoretical background and practical applications they need to decide which
method, materials and resources can and should be used in their
classrooms. This book focused on the
learner and gives attention to the socio-cultural influence in language
learning
Carey (2000), on the other hand, talked about the
appropriate approach in teaching English as second language at an early age
with a nonspeaking natives of Asian countries.
From the problems and issues, to the bottom of approaches to resolve the
said problem. However, the author based
his study to his well-distinguished experience of teaching not relating to
other studies made by other teachers.
Lastly, Gunderson (1993), provided a tour on
practices of ESL Teaching in
States
Gunderson provides a broad illustration of different approaches proposed
by experienced English professors to resolve the declining English Language
competencies brought about by different factors that was also cited in this
document.
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