Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

 

This part of the study shall be covering the literature and studies associated with the subject of the paper. The chapter shall discuss topics relating to the teaching and learning of ESL as connected to psychology and other teaching methods.

 

Teaching and Methods of Discipline

For this study, the researcher has decided to utilize Dreikurs' Model of discipline. (Dreikurs, 1968) Among the contributions of the said author to discipline is the relationship between the student's sense of belonging and classroom behavior. Dreikurs also described the importance of a democratic classroom and teaching style as well as the genuine goal of belonging or social interest. He also stated four mistaken goals of attention, power, revenge, or displaying inadequacy. Moreover, he urged encouragement and logical consequences instead of punishment in correcting behavior.

 

Dreikurs (1968) also posited that there are a couple of ways in attaining discipline, the undesirable way, and the desirable way. The former is characterized with aversive control and punishment imposed on students. It is usually displayed by autocratic teachers. In contrast, lack of control where students are irresponsibly allowed to do as they please. The latter is described as having self-discipline in which students regulate their own behavior. This is most often accomplished by democratic teachers. He purports that students acquire a sense of belonging through democratic teaching and confronting mistaken goals.

 

Deikurs (1968) defined democratic Teaching as an environment where friendly teachers establish order necessary for learning, invite students to cooperate, provide stimulation, encourage sharing of ideas, provide direction and guidance, share responsibility, acknowledge students and their work, and involve students in making decisions that affect the class. On the other hand, autocratic teaching is also defined where teachers lay down the law in the classroom, allow little student input, boss students around, exert pressure, demand cooperation, make all the rules and consequences unilaterally, find fault, criticize, and dominate.

 

He also added the concept of permissive teaching. (Dreikurs, 1968) In this framework, teachers put few limits on students, allow students to do as much as they wish, accept whatever students do, and fail to help students understand that freedom must be linked to responsible behavior. Furthermore, he also assumes that students want to feel they belong, to the group, the class, the school; do not want to feel isolated, left out, unnoticed, not a part of things. Likewise, he also suggested the concept of mistaken goals. Students seek these behaviors when unable to obtain a sense of belonging.

 

The framework provided by Dreikurs (1968) also suggest that when students misbehaves, they are punished undesirably through punishment, humiliation, or isolation. Otherwise, they could be punished desirably through logical consequences, encouragement, and confronting mistaken goals.

 

Moreover, the theory of Dreikurs is largely influenced by Adler's principles. Adler's psychology is summarized in six central principles. First is the unity of the Individual. The theory presupposes that the individual is not internally divided or a battleground of conflicting forces. Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are consistent with the person's style of life. Second is goal orientation. The study assumes that a central personality dynamic originates from the growth and forward movement of life itself. It is a future-oriented striving toward a goal of significance, superiority, or success, which is frequently out of a person's awareness. In mental health, it is a goal of superiority over general difficulties; in mental disorder, it is one of superiority over others. The early childhood feelings of inferiority, for which an individual aims to compensate, lead to the creation of a fictional goal. The depth of inferiority feeling determines the height of the goal, which then becomes the "final cause" for the person's behavior.

 

The third is the concept of self-determination and uniqueness. The study believes that the goal may be influenced by hereditary and cultural factors, but it ultimately springs from the creative power and opinion of the individual. The fourth concept is social context. As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also part of larger wholes or systems -- family, community, culture, nation, humanity, the planet, the cosmos. In these contexts, we meet the three important tasks of life: community, work, and love. All are social problems. The way that individuals respond to the first social system, the family, may become the prototype of their worldview. The fifth is the concept of feeling of community. The theory assumes that each human being has the capacity for developing the feeling of interconnectedness with other living beings and learning to live in harmony with society. The personal feeling of security is rooted in a sense of belonging and embeddedness in the stream of social evolution. The last concept is the principle of mental health. It is supposed that social usefulness and contribution are the criteria of mental health. Maladjustment is characterized by an underdeveloped feeling of community, a deeply felt inferiority feeling, and an exaggerated, uncooperative goal of personal superiority. The goal of therapy is to increase the feeling of community, promote a feeling of equality, and replace egocentric self-protection, self-enhancement, and self-indulgence with self-transcending, courageous, social contribution.

 

The English Language

 

English is used in these and other countries as a first language -- or a speaker's native and most often used tongue. There are also people worldwide who use English in addition to a native language or as a second language, as in India, the Philippines, and the Caribbean Islands, etc. A third group of people might study English as a foreign language and use it only for special purposes. English has more non-native speakers than any other language (Pyles, 1993, p233).

 

In a study made by Krapp (1925) regarding the English language, he provided an The author provides an overview on how the American language has evolve from way back three hundred years reflecting new and complicated developments in social and economic conditions, that the language has undergone some of its most interesting changes. In these changes, the author emphasized that the English language in America has shared to as great an extent as the American people have shared in the development of the civilization of the modern world. This study of American English made a reflection for the most part an impressionistic or polemic interest in the speech of the day, and though often animated and amusing, and sometimes the vehicles for a certain amount of valuable information, they have offered very little in the way of systematic elucidation of the English language in America. The author paid attention most attention has been paid in these treatises, both by Britons and by Americans, to the ever-burning question whether American English is as good as British English.

 

Another study on the English language was conducted by Schlauch (1965). In her work, the author suggests revisions not yet undertaken, for reasons of time and technique. For instance, the author noted B. Trnka, "A Phonemic Aspect of the Great Vowel Shift", in Mélanges de linguistique et de philologie F. Mossé in memoriam, proposes a neat correlation of quantity and tenseness of vowels which should be carefully considered in any treatment of the subject. Similarly, the chapter on American dialects by R. I. McDavid, Jr., in W. N. Francis, The Structure of American English, should be read as supplement to his brief discussion. The whole question of Middle English dialects is now being subjected to rigorous scrutiny by Angus McIntosh (Edinburgh) and others. The results leads to a basic revision of the pioneer work by Whitehall, Moore and Meech (1935), upon which the researcher have chiefly relied. Current work on Modern English dialects will also, in due course, render obsolete to this discussion of that subject, based on materials and analyses of the never-to-be-forgotten Joseph Wright.

 

Teaching English as Second Language

 

The acquisition and learning of language has been has been primarily attributed to the aid of ESL courses. Primarily to promote integration among immigrants, courses for language learning has been predominantly sought after. In this light, this portion of the chapter shall be summarizing several studies pertaining to the instruction of ESL.

 

 In a study of Do-Seon (1997), he proposes a psychoanalytic approach to teaching the language. He focused on the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) system emphasizing the personal, interactive, functional and social aspects of language use in real situations and real time. The researcher stated the factors that are involved in developing English communication competencies particularly in Korea. This document cited the problems that are encountered in learning the English Language and from teaching strategies itself. Moreover, this paper proposed the advantages of humanistic approach of ER as a new and effective paradigm.

 

Another is a compilation edited by Gass and Schachter (1996), which tackle the issues and opportunities of ESL. The distributors cited the practical details of doing classroom-based research in second language issues and opportunities. The article confers in neither the generation of research questions nor the setting up of research projects, for they had had much experience in that area. Rather, they made an honest behind-the-scenes look at what happens from the beginning to the end of a research project within a classroom context. In other words, they did not include about the result the part that appears on the printed pages of journals.

 

The work of Fleishman (1998) on the other hand looked at the current condition of the English Language and how it has been affecting us globally specifically into comprehension of each country's culture.  On this discussion, it included the cruel fact all can agree: in the mid- 1990s the Modern Language Association was reporting that fewer than half the new Ph.D.s in English and other literatures were finding tenure-track positions in association with teaching English as a second language. Moreover, another work of Braine (1999) talked about the 1995 Teachers of English to Speakers of Other language (TESOL) Convention held in Long Beach, a stimulating colloquium titled "Research Writing, Genre, and Socialization" which examined the role of socialization in non-native speakers' (NNSs) understanding and use of various writing genres. The author emphasized the most encouraging enthusiasm of the NNSs in the audience; some claimed that they finally had a voice. The origin of this book can be traced to the interest generated in NNS issues at the Chicago colloquium. In fact, the colloquium has since spawned five other colloquia at subsequent TESOL conventions and inspired the formation of a TESOL Caucus for non-native educators.

 

In addition, the study of Forbis (1995) assessed the Asian accent in the western setting in particular focus on Hawaii's theatre. The document made a statistical analysis on the comprehension and skills of Asian immigrants, and students in learning the English language. The researcher gathered the data from a theater school program in Hawaii, which is technically a part of western setting.

 

Another study is done by Celce-Murcia (2002). This methodology resource gave both experienced and prospective ESL/EFL teachers the theoretical background and practical applications they need to decide which method, materials and resources can and should be used in their classrooms.  This book focused on the learner and gives attention to the socio-cultural influence in language learning

 

Carey (2000), on the other hand, talked about the appropriate approach in teaching English as second language at an early age with a nonspeaking natives of Asian countries.  From the problems and issues, to the bottom of approaches to resolve the said problem.  However, the author based his study to his well-distinguished experience of teaching not relating to other studies made by other teachers.

 

Lastly, Gunderson (1993), provided a tour on practices of ESL Teaching in United States.  Gunderson provides a broad illustration of different approaches proposed by experienced English professors to resolve the declining English Language competencies brought about by different factors that was also cited in this document.

 

 

 

 

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